Interaction of Ethnic, National or Cultural Influences Essay Example for Free

Interaction of Ethnic, National or Cultural Influences EssayAll around the world community ar organised in societies differentiated ethnicalally, nationally and culturally. In our mind under the interethnic dealings are traditionally understood subjectively experienced relations between people of different nationalities, between ethnic communities, which are manifested in attitudes and orientations of interethnic contacts in various sphere of influences of cooperation, national stereotypes, attitudes and behavior, and the actions of people of specific ethnic communities.It is in this area in the first place are projected economic, social and political issues. They acquire an ethnic form and deliver a lot of trouble to society, starring(p) to inter-ethnic tensions, local ethnic conflicts, the growth of ethnic migrations. Ethnic tensions, the state of hostility, distrust, mutual complaints and dissatisfaction arises or may arise from time to time between any nations that are permanently or temporarily in contact with each another(prenominal).Ethnic tensions depend on several factors 1) The history of international relations, the historical memory of the genius of relations between the peoples at different stages (often these relationships take the form of ongoing ethnic tension) 2) the level of economic development of the parties, among representatives of different nations place in the outline of production and property (industrial specialization, predomination of members of certain nationalities in professional and social groups, the dominance of different forms of ownership, quality of life, etc.)3) the structure of the cultural development of the nation the predominance of rural or urban population, the level of education and professional qualifications. There are allocated the following phenomena and processes that significantly affect the formation and strengthening of interethnic tension 1) the inadequacy of a consistent policy of condemnati on and suppression of national manifestations of violence 2) the possibility of negative attitudes towards representatives of the people associated in the eyes of other nations with the administrative-command apparatus3) the perspective of people who have been persecuted and mass deported during the repression, particularly those that have not been returned to their places of origin 4) a sense of national enmity against those nationalities that, in terms of population in many regions, live better than we do. These representations are caused by a variety of reasons, including the identification of the people with the most frequently identified by its representatives. According to M.Walzer, positive(p) ethnic identity is a balance of tolerance for their own and other ethnic groups, which allows us to consider it, on the one hand, as a presumption of an independent and stable existence of an ethnic group, on the other as a condition of peaceful intercultural multi-ethnic world, in teractions, excluding ethnic phobias and confrontation. According to N. M. Lebedeva on ethnic tolerance, defined as the adoption of ethno-cultural differences, and the exclusion of ethnophobia and ethnic confrontations have effects such socio-psychological factors as 1) the degree of ethnic and cultural competence2) psychological quickness for intercultural dialogue 3) The experience and skills of intercultural understanding and cooperation. All these parameters are amenable to the formation and development and in need of professional development by education and socio-psychological discipline of intercultural interaction. Violation of a positive image of their own group tends to reduce ethnic tolerance (YA Gayurova, TG Stefanenko, AN Tatarko, FM Malhozova).9/11 After Twins macrocosm attacked Americans stopped helping Irish Republican Army (IRA Nationalist violent group in Northenr Ireland) when they understood what the terrorism is and what the causes and result are. After the terrorist attacks marked a surge of crimes against people from the Middle East, and other people who looked similar. Suffered even some Sikhs who wear turbans, traditionally associated with Muslims.Reported insults,attacks on mosques and other religious buildings (including the burning of a Hindu temple), and attacks on people, including one murder, September 15, was mortally wounded by Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh who was mistaken for a Muslim. 130 Rating of President Bush subsequently the attacks rose to 86%. 131 September 20, 2001 the President spoke to the nation and a joint session of Congress, regarding the events of 11 September, following the rescue and recovery operations, as wholesome as the response of the U.S. governments intentions. In addition, the important role played by untested York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani, who deserved the appreciation of the public, both in New York and at the national level. Deportations 1941 in USSR. After the publication of the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR On the resettlement of Germans living in the Volga region of 28 August 1941 has been eliminated Autonomous Republic of the Volga Germans and produced total shipping of Germans from ASSR.For this purpose, in advance on the territory of the Autonomous Republic of NP were introduced NKVD troops. Germans were ordered within 24 hours to prepare for resettlement and a limited number of its assets to arrive at the collection points. German inhabitants of the republic were taken to remote areas of Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia. According to this society in September and October 1941 were deported 446,480 Soviet Germans (according to other sources 438 280).In September 1941, many military service persons of German nationality were sent from the front to the rear. In subsequent months, the deportation has touched almost the entire German population living in European Russia and the Caucasus that were not occupied by the Wehrmacht. The reset tlement of Germans made gradually and was unblemished by May 1942. Totally during the war were moved up to 950 thousand Germans. 367,000 Germans were deported to the east the republic of Komi, in the Urals, Kazakhstan, Siberia and the Altai.Babi Yar Estimate between 100 and 150 thousands Judaic people were killed during WW 2 in Babi yar. There were a lot of interactions in different influences during many different events and specific situation that caused a lot of deaths of guileless people. Sometimes many cultures, nations and ethnoses are discriminated or even eliminated because of misunderstanding. It will happen untill people do not understand that there are more other non-violent ways of solving problems.

Gift from the Sea Essay Example for Free

Gift from the Sea EssayOne should lie empty, open, choiceless as a b for each onewaiting for a gift from the sea. Anne Morrow Lindbergh Gift from the Sea (17). Although some may see the differences in my lifes goals and objectives to be far greater than the similarities of that of Anne Morrow Lindbergh, commonalities between our goals and lives do exist. I feel that I am a motivated and ambitious person in my hold right, although my personal career path is leading me towards the subject field of business management. In her book, Gift from the Sea, Anne Morrow Lindbergh always mentioned the importance of balance and alone time in ones life.She wrote on how it is important to remember to be ones self in addition to being a parent. Lindbergh reiterated by dint ofout the book on the importance of alone time with ones self and alone time with ones partner. My personal goals and objective have always included time alone, time alone with my signifi deposet otherwise and individu al growth along with growing within a family structure. These objectives are all ones that have been and will continue to be important in my life. In what would be considered a more personal and spiritual side, I can also relate to Ms.Lindbergh. On page 69 of her book she writes, True individuality is found in creativity activity springing from within. It is found, paradoxically, when one loses oneself. One must lose ones life to find it, (Gift 69). Many race probably think of this concept as a relatively new one. I was surprised to find it within the covers of this 1955 book. Although we can find it in ghostly text, here Anne Morrow Lindbergh is also using it to the importance of women giving themselves alone time regardless of their economic status in life.She goes on to say in her own way that we all die alone so it is important that we each make for ourselves the quiet connection time to understand ourselves. Lindbergh relates to the reader that it is only through understandi ng ourselves can we really understand our family and others in general. I too can relate to this and make this an important part of my life. What I wouldnt sine qua non to do is to get in a daily routine while half-consciously allowing this routine life to take me through life.So that too is an objective in both my personal and paid life and goals. I consciously make the time to meditate on what Im currently doing, where my current path is leading me and in doing this, take the extra time to consider whether I need to make changes that will lead me closer towards all of my personal and professional goals and objectives. Part of Lindbergs life goals and objectives were in making it a priority in balancing her family life, her time with her spouse, time with her children and her alone time.She would do this while at the same time still accomplishing things in life she felt were important for her as an individual to accomplish in her lifetime. non only is this an objective of mine, besides most likely an objective of many. Her familys wealth and education contributed in her being able to accomplish some of her goals and objectives while understanding the importance of each of them. Through my personal education process, I am realizing the importance of my own goals and objectives and taking the time to contemplate and follow through with each one of them.We can all have hopes and dreams but as Anne Morrow Lindbergh helps me and others to understand, its the follow through part that can separate us from those who merely have hopes, dreams, goals and objectives in our lives. Not least of all, I like Anne have a great fondness for the water, the shells, having a private sanctuary where there are few necessities. Patience creedOpeness, is what the sea has to teach. SimplicitySolitudeIntermittencyBut there are other beaches to explore. There are more shells to find.This is only the beginning (Gift, 128). Anne Morrow Lindbergh was most magnificently known for being married to Charles Lindbergh, the man who piloted the first solo non-stop Transatlantic flight from New York to Paris. However, in her own right, Anne became a co-pilot in many of Charles Lindberghs historic flights along with authoring and co-authoring books, diaries and poetry. In 1930, Anne Morrow Lindbergh was also the first American woman to earn the First Class Glider Pilots License.Along with her preserve she explored and charted different air routes between different continents. Her and Charles were the first two people in history to fly from Africa to South America. Anne was married to Charles Lindbergh for 45 years. Anne Morrow Lindbergh died the seventh daytime of February, 2001. Bibliography Anne Morrow Lindbergh. BiographyResource Center. Contemporary Authors Online. Thomson-Gale, 2007. Lindbergh, Anne Morrow, and Carl Howard Pforzheimer. Gift from the Sea. New York Pantheon, 1955.

Wealth Distribution in the US

Wealth Distribution in the USUnited States of America consists of 50 states and star federal district, with gravid in Washington. Unites States has the largest economy in the world, with a nominal GDP of $ 16.8 trillion by the year 2013.1 The U.S. is a big producer of ve take egressable oil and largest producer of natural gas. It has the second place in the trade after China.2 Moreover U.S. is the largest financial center in the world with a center in New York. The unemployment is 7.7% by the year 2013, meaning 12 million quite a little,3 whereas the population represents 315 million. It is a huge country with a huge territory and due to the differences in living standard of the population the scattering of income and riches is extremely unequalized.1.1 Current status on richesiness distributionWealth inequality means the unequal distribution of assets among Ameri potentiometer inhabitants in the United States. Assets or wealth refers to everything what the family or a pers on possess minus all(a) debts e.g. the real estate, automobiles, stocks, bonds, businesses, savings, and investments minus all mortgages, vehicles loans, educational loans, financial assets loans etc.4 According to President Obama (2014) the top wealthiest 1% possesses 40% of the nations wealth the bottom 80% own 7%, which refers to the stream state of the wealth distribution. The average employee needs to work more than a month to earn what the CEO earns in one hour.5Wealth is not something to lead on the daily expenditures, it should be a contribution to the income in order to achieve and retain the desired status and standard of living.6 Wealth should support modern consumption or should be retained to support the future consumption.7 Moreover, wealth should be used for short- and spacious-term financial security, social prestige, and is a tool to get an access to political power, and can be used to produce more wealth.8 The more wealth one has, the more power one has, and the less restrictions on that point are to live the life one likes. Generally the working and middle class finance all standard living costs through income and earnings, mend the rich are aiming on gaining more wealth, and making more profit of it.91.2 Historical change of wealth distribution in the USChanges in wealth from 1989 to 2001By observing how the wealth of American households changes with the time, one can notice a general increase in wealthier individuals and a decrease in the number of poor households. Moreover the share of households with more debts than assets (negative net worth) significantly decreased from 9.5% in 1989 to 4.1% in 2001.10From 1995 to 2004, one can notice a significant egress among household wealth in the whole U.S., they doubled from $21.9 trillion to $43.6 trillion, which rely not only on the wealthy part of the country but on all residents of America, however the wealthiest of them used that time to make up 89% of this growth.11 The situation on unequal wealth distribution in the U.S. was always an way out but during this time, wealth became only more unequal, and the wealthiest 25% became even wealthier.The significant role in an increase of housing wealth played life-cycles. Every baby-boom, people who reached the peak of their careers and the middle aged population contributed a lot to the general increase of wealth throw-out of the U.S., by achieving the comfortable levels of wealth.12 The other explanation of a unafraid increase of household wealth is that financing the own houses / flats and cars became more accessible for all classes of population by introducing different financial products like mortgage loans, leasing etc and by introducing some social assistance e.g. granting favorable financial conditions for poor families.Table 1 Share of wealth held by the Bottom 99% and Top 1% in the United States, 1922-2010Source http//www2.ucsc.edu/whorulesamerica/power/wealth.htmlChanges in wealth after 2007During the fina ncial crisis the wealth of the households declined from 2007 to 2009 by a jibe of $17.5 trillion or 25.5%, which is comparable with(predicate) to one year of GDP.13 However in 2010 the household net worth improved the performance by growing of 1.3 percent only to a total of $56.8 trillion. Still that growth was not enough to reach the value before the crisis and 15.7 percent is needed to recover.14According to statistics of 2007 the top 1% own 34.6% of the total U.S. wealth. The side by side(p) 19% possess 50.5%, which means that the top 20% wealthiest possessed 85% of all financial assets, which is incredibly unequal. While the bottom 80% of the US residents own only 15% of the total wealth.15 As was mentioned before, the percentage of wealthy people in 2014 even increased.1.3 Comparison with other countriesThe figures of 2013 showed that the wealth inequality in the U.S. was worse than in most developed countries. Moreover according to some figures the United States does not be long in the league of the developed countries due to the unequal wealth distribution. As the U.S. top 10% own 75.4%, comparing with other countries (2014) Australia 50.3%, Canada 57.4%, Denmark 72.2% , Finland 44.9%, France 51.8%, Germany 61.7%, Italy 49.8%, Japan 49.1%, Spain 54%, U.K. 53.3% and Singapore 61.1%, which means that the US has the most unequal wealth distribution among the top 20 developed countries. However in that location are even some extreme examples like Chile 72.5%, India 73.8%, Indonesia 75%, South Africa 74.8%, Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine.16 In display case of Switzerland, Denmark and Sweden the percentage of people with their own houses there is quite low as they tend to rent flats but there is no big difference in population classes like in the U.S.1.4 Wealth vs. IncomeIt is important to distinguish two following definitions Wealth and Income. Income refers to a flow of money (per hour, per week, or per year) which means wages and salaries, i.e. income which people receive through work, retirements and some social aids whereas wealth refers to the assets owned, e.g. houses, cars, financial assets (stocks, bonds), investments etc.17 However income inequality is not adequate enough to describe the frugal inequality, as it does not replicate the full picture of individuals economic situation as some people live from their wealth and not from the income.According to the United States Census Bureau definition income is received on a regular basis before payments for personal income taxes, social security, union dues, medicare deductions, etc.18 By considering this definition its clear that the wealthiest families have low income however they earn their money through their assets, which enables them to support their lifestyle. As was mentioned before dividends and bond payments are not included in the classification of income but are the primary source of funding. People in retirement have also little income but a higher wealth due to saving of money during their lifetime, which they hand over to their children and children would be wealthier than their parents due to usage of their assets to earn profit.19 A low-income household with above-average wealth is not necessarily worse off than a medium-income household with no wealth.20By taking a look on a table below there is a comparison of top 1% and bottom 40% and it is obvious that by having only debts (like these 40%) it is very hard or impossible to nominate wealth. There is only little exception of people, who created much wealth in one generation, while most of the wealthiest come already from rich families and were born rich.Who can be this top 1% of the wealthy people in the United States? Most likely these people to be self-employed and they earn most of the income from capital and financial assets.21 The most common professions are managers, physicians, IT-administrators, lawyers, and teachers.22 The wealth is not something, which could be gained in a c ouple of years. There are assets, which are given from parents to the children in order to make more wealth on existing wealth. Thats why top 1% are wealthy U.S. families, which made their business long time ago.1.5 Mechanism to gain wealthAs was mentioned before wealth is assets like real estates, vehicles, stocks and other financial and non-financial property. While some people survive their money the whole life to get a house and all other expenditure go for food, clothes, gas and travels, the others make more wealth out of their wealth and with each generation these families become wealthier.There rises a question what is the way for a normal average class man to gain wealth? There are some possibilities or buildings established by the Federal Government. There are 401k plans, 403b plans, and IRAs. These tools (pension funds) are so called tax shelters, which were made for working individuals. They sell pre-tax contributions of earned income to the tax sheltered savings accoun ts.23 Contributed assets in Roth IRAs (individual retirement arrangement) are tax free and all interests, dividends, and capital gains are all excluded from income taxes. However in order to invest in these tools, one need a relative high capital and its only available for those individuals and families, who can afford to bring together their assets for a long time (typically until the investor reaches age of 60).1 _ Gross Domestic Product 4th Quarter and Annual 2013, Bureau of Economic Analysis2 _ Inman, economics identical China overtakes US in world trade3 _ Federal Reserve Database-FRED4 _ Hurst, (2007)5 _ Marsden, (January 26, 2014)6 _ Grusky,(2001), paginate 6377 _ OECD (2013) Framework for statistics on the distribution of household income, consumption and wealth, page cxx8 _ Keister, page 649 _ Gilbert, (1998)10 _ US Federal Reserve on wealth distribution in the United States (2006)11 _ Zhu Xiao Di. (2007)12 _ US Federal Reserve on wealth distribution in the United State s (2006)13 _ Broder, (2010)14 _ U.S. Federal Reserve, (2010)15 _ Forbes (2011) by Deborah L. Jacobs16 _ http//www.huffingtonpost.com/eric-zuesse/us-is-now-the-most-unequa_b_4408647.html (2013)17 _ Grusky, (2001), page 63718 _ U.S. Census Bureau, (2005)19 _ Keister, (2004), page 6520 _ OECD (2013) Framework for statistics on the distribution of household income, consumption and wealth, page 12121 _ New York Times (2012)22 _ New York Times (2012)23 _ 401(k) Resource Guide Plan Participants Limitation on Elective Deferrals

Highland Tower Collapse and Ramp Construction

highland bulk large Collapse and Ramp ConstructionIntroductionThe purpose of this hear is to find aside from a field, a instaling that experienced bodily construction catastrophe, study its short comings and come up with solutions and recommendations of what could be done to ensure the equivalent problem doesnt happen in the future. The grammatical construction upon which the research is based in this assignment is called the Highland tower, a building in Selangor Malaysia which collapsed and 48 fix died and 12 others were evacuated from the other building. The Highland Towers collapse was an apartment building collapse that occurred on 11 December 1993 in Taman Hillview, Ulu Klang, Selangor, Malaysia. The collapse of Block One of the apartments caused the deaths of 48 people and led to the complete evacuation of the remaining two blocks due to safety device concern. It was one of the more or less tragic building accidents in Malaysian floor where residential towers coll apsed and killed people. Since then, the government and its subsidiaries sat down in a committee to see a way forward for the construction industry especially construction in hilly atomic number 18as to minimize casualties.The event has been widely publicized, when an American tourist in particular because it is captured in the next ten days and interpreted to the Tower of photos a dramatic sequence, and crazy rescue operations. Building professionals with the case of some(prenominal) important becharm in Malaysia, which lead be the focus of this paper, but excessively lead to tort law in Malaysia interesting development and clarification.Case studyHighland Towers consists of three 12-storey buildings in a steep hill, was later extensively on the terraces in the early 1980s in western base build in stages between 1974 to 1982. Each block is namedBlock1 (built in 1977, the most southern)Block2 (built in 1979, north-west block 1, slightly elevated than the other two, the closer to the top of the hill)Block3 (built in 1981, the Northwest block 1, block West 2).Parking quarter the bulk rain collapsed building in the swimming pool located on both sides and the rear between Northwest Northeast parking lot after the landslide caused by the failure of the retaining wall behind the building failed, for 10 days. The tower is home to the affluent middle-class families considerable proportion of residents are expatriates . Highland Tower was once notorious early 1980s and 1990s for wealthy people to hide their mistress popular place . The pee tower is behind a small stream known as the eastern United States Creek . Eastern Creek flows into the tower site tower before construction. Later, build a pipeline system to divert flow to bypass the tower in 1991, a new housing development project, called Wu Antarabangsa Development Project , located in the tower Peak behind the start . As a result, the mountain has been excreteed of trees and other vegetation and la nd cover, soil erosion exposed land, which go forth lead to land slides from the construction site of the water diverted into the river to divert the flow of the same East piping systems. eventually, the pipeline system to become over- pressurized water, gritstone and silt from the Eastern Creek and the construction site. pipe burst at different locations in the mountains, the soil had to absorb excess moisture . December 1993 monsoon rains still worsening the situation .(Block One of the Highland Towers collapsed)Role and responsibilitiesThe Architect(I) there is no defense of this contact is a limited one, at least you mustiness ensure that other aspects of the work of others is competent to complete. Defensive architect, he only retained the design and first-ratevision of three apartment buildings, and denied that his range extends to the drainage, earthworks and retaining walls. It was disregard by that court. The court held that the architect must take into account the bu ilding on which is built in the vicinity of the land, and the land itself, the safety assessment of the building, it must be evaluated. In addition, the court held that as a matter of fact, the architect concerned about the neighborhood and the building itself, when he submitted the layout plan, the authorities because it includes high tower behind the lurch terraces and drainage. Therefore, he must ensure that the work carried out although others in a competent and workmanlike manner(Ii) there is no difference between the measuring rod foreboding of unqualified doctorsAlthough the architect in reality just a building draftsman, measure their mien on the court has the ability to architect a standard that if a person is unqualified, but showed himself to strike a skill, he will be judged by the standard a competent and qualified staff.(C) there is no excuse to say that compulsory employer does not comply with regulationsFinally, the Court seems to have flatly rejected the archit ects excuse that he can not do anything to watch his boss (employers and engineers in obtaining certificates of fitness in three apartment buildings do not fulfill the conditions stipulated by the local authorities in collusion background, quite of terraces and retaining walls to ensure proper design, provide and sufficient to withstand, even though he knew it would affect the building, he was in charge) be given instability the Court has made clear that, when the law is broken, the architect must work to the authorities after the architect must ensure that the law, even in the risk of being discharged.Engineer excuse engineer, he only retained the design and supervision of three apartment buildings, Highland Towers compound structures within two retaining walls, and submit plans, drainage, and two and denied his range extends to the drainage, earthworks. It was dismissed by that court. The court found that engineers must take into account the building on which is built in the vicinity of the land, and the land itself, the time to assess the safety of buildings, must be evaluated. He should ensure the stability of the slope behind Highland Towers.His duties not by a mere belief that they are built on terraced slopes and retaining walls were discharged by an engineer or other consultant. He should ask the professional is qualified, whether he was doing what impact the safety of cascading tower. Neglect other aspects of engineers a beneficial violation of the authorities to take care of his responsibilities to a notification issued by the buyer, and only 10 percent is based on the sanctioned drainage constructionIn summary locations near building professionals need to be considered, as well as the safety assessment of the site itself, especially winning into account the side by side(p) hillside. Building professionals to participate in a limited range can not hide behind, these are the things that they themselves and their employers, but they may be su bject to the duties owed to the background of their service is not limited to this. Building professionals required to ensure that others do the work to engage them in the design may affect / supervisory structure is competent, workmanlike manner to carry out the work. If you think the general building professionals have expertise in a specific area of eligibility when they are unqualified, their behavior will be a measure of this expertise qualified doctor. After building professionals must ensure that law and, if necessary to report to the authorities if their clients disunite the law, even in danger by their client to be discharged.Case application on law of tortNegligenceThe Highland Towers decision becomes another(prenominal) Malaysian High Court decision which diverges from the approach of the English Courts and adopts the approach taken by other Commonwealth jurisdictions in allowing the recovery of pure stinting loss, especially where sufficient proximity can be demonstrat ed between the negligent act and the loss. Pure economic loss is the loss tie in to the product itself which is defective by reason of negligence, as opposed to the loss or damage caused to the property of the Plaintiff by this defective product.NuisanceIn this cause of action, a Defendant is likely if the Plaintiff can show the Defendant is responsible for(p) for a condition or activity which interferes with use or enjoyment of his land, and that condition or activity is not a reasonable user by the Defendant. The Highland Towers decision, requiring the plaintiff must establish an additional fate that is the type of damage whether the suspect could reasonably foreseeable, the principles adopted from English case law on the extension of the disturbance is limited in Malaysia, Cambridge Water guild leather Co. Ltd. v. Eastern European countries.Cause of structural failureThe water tower is behind a small stream known as the East Creek . Eastern Creek flows into the tower site t ower before construction, so the establishment of the pipeline system is to divert the flow to bypass the tower.In 1991, a new housing development project, called Bukit Antarabangsa Development Project, located in the tower under construction behind the top of the hill . The mountain is decipherable of trees and other vegetation and land cover, land exposed soil erosion is a major factor causing landslides.Construction site of the new water diverted into the existing pipeline systems used to transfer the East river flows. This heavy-duty piping and water, sand and silt from the river and east into the pipeline construction site . Pipes burst, several places in the mountains, and the surrounding soil to absorb excess moisture . December 1993 monsoon rains further deterioration of the situation .The water content in the soil becomes super saturated, so that the soil has become viscous, actually become the degree of clay. October 1992 by the hillside is saturated with water, the wate r is flowing down the slopes and considered retaining walls .Shortly thereafter, landslides, destroying the construction of a retaining wall. landslip mud that contains an estimated one hundred thousand square meters a mass equivalent to 200 Boeing 747 aircraft. Rammed earth base to first, gradually pushing it forward. After a month of this constant pressure, foundations snapped and November 1993, the residents began to see cracks forming and expanding the highlands surrounding the tower, on the road warning of collapse. Unfortunately, no further investigation before a collapse December 11, 1993. asylum authorities and Investigation procedures.These were the findings of the investigation that came from the accident. Also indicating who was to blame for the occurrence of the accident. Within the first 24 hours, only two women and an infant were pulled out of the rubble. Indonesian housemaid Umi Rashidah Khoruman, 22, and her 18-month old daughter Nur Hamidah Najib, survived the ord eal, but the second woman, Japanese national Shizue Nakajima, 50, succumbed to her injuries. Final report from the investigations showed that It was the fault of the property owners not to drain the land that caused the silt to build and thus the massive land slide that led to the collapse of the structure that claimed 48 lives.Liabilities.The following are the court s findings of liability The first suspect was negligent in assuming business not to engage a qualified architect, building terraces insufficient, inadequate, could reasonably be expected to have caused the collapse of the retaining walls and drains eastbound diversion from its natural course and failed to ensure that the slope is adequate water pipe culverts, and hate not maintained drains and retaining walls .The second suspect ( the architect ) is fake liability for negligence does not ensure adequate drainage and retaining walls built in the adjacent highlands tower site, which he foresaw or should have foreseen t hat the building would hazard the hillside, he is responsible for, not specified with the authorities on drainage, and the first defendant and the troika defendant ( engineers ) collude to get fitness certificate does not fulfill the conditions by the fourth defendant ( local authorities ) are required, in doing so does not comply with his duties, the architect and no investigation retaining walls, even though he knew they would affect the terraced hillsides and construction of buildings, he was responsible for, and hate, because he is an unreasonable land users .The third defendant ( engineer ) is behind the negligence of responsibility without considering the hillside or slope of the tower, there is no basis for the design and construction to accommodate lateral load or alternatively landslide has ensured that the adjacent slope stability, without implementation of the approved drainage plan, and the first and second defendants colluded to get fitness certificate does not fulfi ll the conditions stipulated by the fourth defendant and a nuisance, because he is irrational use of land.The fourth defendant ( local authorities ) Although the negligence of its construction-related jobs. That is about the building plan approval process to ensure the implementation of the approved construction of drainage systems, and in the Certificate of Fitness problem remains because S95 Street, Drainage and Building Act (2 ) immunity.The fourth defendant, but a maintenance answer Eastern stream late in fulfilling its construction can not be spared for its negligence . It also attracted a nuisance liability .The fifth defendant ( Arab Malaysian financial BHD) is liable for the negligence of failure to maintain drains their land, and in the land after the collapse of the measures taken to restore stability .Seventh defendant (Metrolux property ) and its project manager, the eighth defendant, who is the responsibility of negligence and nuisance, to prevent water from flowing i nto the downhill ( into their website ), but to guide the stream of water into the East, when they knew or ought to have known, this will increase the amount of water injected into the mud and, in particular, have their own extensive land clearing, go east into the stream, it will be deposited, which will in turn ( to prove ) cause or contribute to drainage fault system and a collapse.The ninth and tenth defendant ( basically the state government ), found no liability due to a technical problem on the prosecution of a particular political party.The sixth defendant ( who carried out the work site clean- Arab abortion buyer of land in Malaysia ) found no evidence of responsibility .RemediesAbout remedies the first this is find a qualified driveors and qualified Designer and construction engineer. In this case causes of building collapse the main reason is to find designer contractor caused by the irrational. So we summary have five points(i) Nearby locations building professionals n eed to be considered, as well as the safety assessment of the site itself, especially taking into account the adjacent hillside.(Ii) building professionals to participate in a limited range can not hide behind, these are things that they themselves and their employers, but they may be subject to the duties owed to the scope of their service is not limited to this.(Iii) building professionals required to ensure that others do the work may be engaged to supervise their influence in the design / construction is competent, will carry out their work, a workmanlike manner.(Iv) if the building professionals think they have expertise in specific areas when they are unqualified, their behavior will be a measure of this general qualifications expertise qualified doctor.(V) construction professionals must ensure that the law after a report to the authorities if necessary, if their clients break the law, even in danger by their client to be discharged.The second thing to do is to ensure that th e experience and expertise to this project. close to it is to ensure that all materials and components to be installed and used in order to test its functionality and satisfactory compliance with the required standards. For example specific laboratory tests should be taken before using compressive strength, stability and durability.Finally, before any part of the project is complete, responsible for the approval before its next regulatory bodies should be. The project is a fabric for all the items necessary tests, carried out before the actual implementation. Engineers can also use the cause of the weather and other aspects of the model.The third thing is because this situation has occurred for galore(postnominal) years, although the court has not yet made the decision, but still want to remind contractors, who together oversee project quality, and how to resolve some of the risk around. Do not let the tragedy happen again.Percentage Frequency of Causes of Building Collapse(Malays ia 1960-2010)So in this table we can see Causes of Building Collapse most reason is Inexperience contractor. Now we need clean know find an experienced contractor is very important,faulty design and due to surrounding building development also account for a large proportion.RecommendationsFrom the above analysis and discussion presented, you can infer that the main reason for the buildings structural failures, design errors and miserable workmanship, which may also be applicable to other countries in the world .Also from the results of this study,it is believed that there are three types of claims, can produce any buildings collapsed, that contract claims, tort claims and incidents of both contract and tort claims This means that a party can be made in this both his / her request. Therefore, the following recommendations for who had suffered losses in the square building collapseEvents so that their requirements(i) The Government shall endeavor to assist in the investigation of an y incidence of building collapse, to allow victims to know the responsible party, and from whom to make a claim .(ii) The Government should assist owners or who have suffered the loss of a building collapse in the event a third party to prosecute their cases in court as they do their other requirements, if they can not, becauseThe expensive nature of the proceedings.(iii) The Government should enact laws that will improve the potency and standards for the construction of buildings.(iv) In addition, the government should monitor, manage and enforce the law, its effectiveness.(v) Every building owner should ensure that qualified professionals and experienced contractors are engaged in carrying out their construction process .(vi) Every professional body should monitor their members and also be ready to penalize any erring member who ISS found liable in building collapse incident.ConclusionRamp construction led to landslides like we definitely hear a lot of news, and landslides claim ed more and more of run across events, why is everywhere and felling of trees for the construction of the activities. Otherwise, this tragedy 21 years ago can be avoided I hope the Government will seriously look at this issueREFERENCEShttp//malaysiafactbook.com/Highland_Towers_collapsehttp//www.nst.com.my/nation/general/i-saw-highland-towers-block-crash-to-

Freuds Cases of Hysteria: Birth of Psychoanalysis

Freuds Cases of Hysteria Birth of PsychoanalysisAbstractThis thesis returns to the original case histories that Freud wrote on the endurings he treated for delirium. here in these early manoeuvres, the beginnings of psychoanalytical hypothesis take shape in the acceptance of strictly psychological theories of fury. Catharsis leads to the firstly inklings of repression which requires the example of free association, which erstwhile again leads into Freuds attempt to explain the strange neuroses he sees through with(predicate) seduction speculation, which is again transformed as his thinking go forwards on. Through Anna O, Frau Emmy von N. and Dora, Freud discovered the seeds of what would establish his in altogether-encompassing theory of the human psyche. Modern reinterpretations (e.g. Rosenbaum Mur make, 1984) of those early cases that form the author of modern psychoanalysis get under ones skin come and gone, save the original texts remain as historical will t o the fermenting of those funda psychical subjects.IntroductionHysteria has been a hugely popular subject for research in psychoanalysis and in the history of ideas. Its roots argon make intrustly signalled by the Greek word from which the word comes uterus. Indeed the uterus was seen by Egyptians as a mobile organism that could move close of its protest will when it chose to do so this caused the disturbances only seen (or acknowledged) in women. Treatments for this disease included trying to entice the uterus underpin into the body with the use of attractive-smelling substances as advantageously as the driving down of the uterus from above by the eating of noxious substances. Just under four thousand years later, the formulation and discourse of hysterics had b atomic number 18ly improved.The history of madness shows how it has often been seen as a physical disorder, kinda than a mental one. Borossa (2001) describes near of the most common symptoms of delirium as invo lving paralysis of the limbs, coughing, fainting, the loss of speech and parallel to this the sudden proficiency in a nonher language. The change of view shoot down that lead up to Freuds analysis was slow in coming, and, as Bernheimer (1985) describes, only showed the first signs of changing in the seventeenth ampere-second with the first questions be raised that perhaps hysteria had its origins in a mental disturbance of some kind.Antecedent to Freuds interest in hysteria, it was the clinical neurologist, Charcot, who had a coarse influence on the field and accepted, by his methods, a more psychological explanation. Although informal factors had long been implicated in the etiology of hysteria (Ellenberger, 1970), Charcot did not agree that they were a sine qua non although he did maintain that they played an important part. He treated endurings using a form of hypnosis and eventually his formulation of how hysteria was produced and treated was closely intertwined with the hy pnosis itself. It was this use of hypnosis that interested Freud and it was the implication of sexual factors in hysteria that was eventually to become influential. It seemed that hysteria and hypnosis might offer Freud the chance to investigate the link between head teacher and body (Schoenwald, 1956).Anna O The First Psychoanalytical unhurriedThe literature often describes Anna O as the first ever longanimous of psychoanalysis. As it is notoriously difficult to define precisely what psychoanalysis might have in intellect because of its shifting nature through time, this is a claim that is clearly interpretational. Still, the fact that this claim is made raises the interest into precisely what it was that marked out Anna Os interference and the theories accompanying it from what had gone before. Although Anna O was not a tolerant of Freud, but a patient of his close colleague at the time, Joseph Breuer, he took a great interest in her case and its manipulation, and from it flowed some of the foundational aspects of psychoanalysis both through the analysis of this case and Freuds reaction and reinterpretation of it.One of the reasons that Freud was interested in Anna O was that she delineated an extremely unusual case of hysteria. Anna O had first been taken ill while she had been fetching c be of her dying father. At first she suffered from a irate cough which soon expanded into a range of other perplexing symptoms. Freud Breuer (1991) describe these symptoms as going through four separate stages. The first stage, the potential incubation, occurred while she was nursing her dying father she had become weak, was not eating and would spend much of the afternoons sleeping, which was because unexpectedly followed by a period of fire activity in the evenings. The second stage, which had begun around the time Breuer started treating her, contained a strange confluence of symptoms. Her vision was printed by a squint, she could no longer move any o f the extremities on the right side of her body. The third stage, which roughly coincided with the death of her father, heralded alternating states of somnambulism with relative typicality. The fourth stage, according to Breuer, is the slow leaking external of these symptoms up until June 1882, almost two years after she had first come to see her physician. The question is, how had these symptoms been interpreted and what had Breuer done in claiming to effect a repossess?It is in the case of Anna O that the most basic elements of a new talking cure jakes be seen. As t ancient by Breuer, it is a word that grew organically, as if by its own power, as he continued to see the patient. Often, in the afternoons, when the patient would habitually fall into an auto-hypnotic state, she would utter odd words or phrases, which, when questioned by those around her, would become elaborated into stories, sometimes taking the form of fairytales. These stories told to Breuer, changed in charac ter over the period of Anna Os treatment, moving from those that were light and poetic, through to those that contained dark and frightening imagery. The unusual thing about these stories was that after they were told, it was as though a demon had been released from the patient and she became calmer and open to reason, cheerful even, often for a period of twenty-four hours afterwards.There seemed to be, staring Breuer in the face, some kind of connection between the stories that Anna O told him and the symptoms which she was manifesting. It was here that Freud was to find the roots of a smoothly psychological explanation of hysteria. Breuer describes numerous examples of this connection. On one occasion Anna O appeared to be suffering from an uncontrollable thirst and was given to demanding water, although when it was brought, she would refuse to touch it. by and by six weeks of this continuing, one day, again in an auto-hypnotic state, she started to tell a story about a friend w ho had allowed her dog to drink out of a glass. This had patently caused the patient big di sift and seemed to have led to pent-up anger, which was expressed on this occasion to Breuer. Afterwards Breuer was surprised to find that her previous craving and then abhorrence of water had disappeared. Other similar connections between symptoms and a story told by the patient were as well as seen by Breuer so that eventually he came up with the theory that the patient could be cured systematically by going through the symptoms to find the event that had caused their onset. Once the event had been described, as long as it was with sufficient emotional vigour, the patient would show remission of that symptom. It was by this method that Breuer claimed to have effected a cure of Anna O over the period of the treatment.It is from this case, although not in the immediate reporting by Breuer, that some of the most fundamental principles of psychoanalysis begin to form. An element of the story that has now passed into psychoanalytic legend, with some accept its truth while others rejecting it, provides a more dramatic ending to the therapeutic relationship than that presented by Breuer. According to Freud (1970) in his letters, he pieced together an alternative accounting system of what had happened at the end of Anna Os therapy. According to Freud, Breuer had been treating Anna O in the way he had discovered, as previously described, and had finally reached the point where her symptoms had been removed. Later that day he was called back to his patient to find her in considerable apparent pain in her abdomen. When she was asked what was wrong she replied that, Dr. Bs child is coming This immediately sent Breuer forward from her at the highest speed as he was not able to cope with this new revelation. He then passed her onto a colleague for further treatment as he had already realised that his wife was jealous of his treatment of Anna O and this new revelation only comp ounded the problem.Forrester (1990) draws attention to the fact that Breuer acknowledged the impressiveness of sexuality in the causes of neuroses. But despite this, he backed away from Anna Os case as soon as it came to the surface. As Forrester (1990) points out, Freud sees this as Breuers error and sees in it the birth of a psychoanalysis, especially one of its most important aspects transference, and more specifically sexual transference.Through the way that Breuer describes Anna Os progress in his new type of therapy, the path which the theory of hysteria and its treatment takes gradually emerges. Although Anna Os case was reported later it was Breuer Freud (1893) that used her case as the basis for their theory of hysteria. Breuer Freud (1893) state that they believe that the symptoms of hysteria have, at their root cause, some kind of causal event, perhaps occurring many years before the symptoms expose themselves. The patient is un carely to easily reveal what this event is simply because they are not consciously aware of what it is, or that in that location is a causal connection. They are not worried by the seeming disproportionate nature of the precipitating event and subsequent symptoms. In fact they welcome this disproportionate nature as a defining characteristic of hysteria. Their analysis likens the root cause, or pathogenesis, of hysteria to that caused by a traumatic neurosis perhaps similar to what we would now call post-traumatic stress disorder. The patient has, thitherfore, suffered a psychical trauma that manifests itself in this hysteria. The idea that the psychical trauma simply has a precipitating effect on the symptoms is dismissed by the authors referring to the evidence they have from the case studies of the remarkable progress their patients made after the memory of the psychical trauma has been exorcised through its explication and re-experiencing.Importantly, in defining the problem, Breuer Freud (1893) see the symptoms a s a kind of failure of reaction to the original event. The memory of the event can only fade if the reaction to that event has not been suppressed. And it is here that there is a clear precursor to ideas central to later Freudian theory about the nature and causes of repression. In normal reactions to psychical traumas, the authors talk of a purgative effect resulting in a release of the energy. The reverse of this, the suppression of catharsis (Freeman, 1972), is seen here as the cause of the symptoms adequately evidenced by the new treatment of a kind of delayed catharsis that appears to release the patient from their symptoms. What, then, are the mechanisms by which a psychical trauma of some kind is not reacted to sufficiently? Two answers are provided here, the first that because of the circumstances of the trauma, it was not possible to form a reaction in other words the reactions is suppressed. The second is that a reaction may not have been possible due to the mental stat e of the person at that time for example during a period of paralysing fear. The circumstances in which the failure of a reaction occurs is also instrumental in the burying of these thoughts and feelings and helps to explain why the patient themselves is not able to admission fee them in the normal ways.Frau Emmy von N.Freuds interest in hysteria and in hypnosis was certainly piqued by both Charcot and Breuer and having collaborated on the latters pretend with Anna O including the belief that he had found a theory of practical benefit it was only a matter of time before he became further involved in the treatment of hysteria himself. Reported as the second case history in The Studies on Hysteria, (Breuer Freud, 1991) a patient of Freuds, Frau Emmy von N., exhibited symptoms that typified hysteria and Freud resolved to treat her. He reports that the patient was 40 years old, was from a good family and of high education and intelligence. She had been widowed at a young age, leav ing her to look after her two children this she ascribed as the cause of her current malady. Freud describes her first meeting as being continually interrupted by the patient breaking off, and suddenly displaying signs of disgust and horror on her face while sex act him to, Keep still and other similar remonstrations. Apart from this the patient also had a series of tics, some facial, but the most pronounced being a clacking sound which littered her utterances. Freuds initial treatment was more physical than mental. She was told to take warm baths and be given massages. This was combined with hypnosis in which Freud simply suggested that she sleep sanitary and that her symptoms would lessen. This was helped by the fact that Freud reports that Frau Emmy von N. was an extremely good hypnotic subject he only had to raise his finger and make a few simple suggestions to wander her into a trance. Freud wonders whether this compliance is due to previous exposure to hypnosis and a desi re to please.A week later Freud asked his patient why she was so easily frightened. She replied with a story about a traumatic experience that had occurred when she was younger her older brothers and sisters had thrown dead animals at her. As she described these stories to Freud, he reports that she was, panting for tip as well as displaying obvious difficulty with the emotions that she was dealing with. After these emotions have been expressed, she became calmer and more peaceful. Freud also uses touch to reinforce his suggestion that these unnerving images have been removed. Under hypnosis, Freud continued to elicit these stories that demonstrated why she was so often nervous. She explained to Freud that she had once had a maidservant who told her stories of life in an asylum including beatings and patients being laced to chairs. Freud then explained to her that this was not the usual situation in asylums. She had also apparently seen hallucinations at one point, seeing the sam e person in two come to the fores and being transfixed by it. While she had been nursing her dying brother, who was taking large quantities of morphine for the pain he was in, he would frequently grab her suddenly. Freud saw this as part of a pattern of her being seized against her will and resolved to investigate it further.It was a few days after this that quite a significant point in the therapy came. Emmy von N. was again explaining about the frightening stories of the asylum and Freud stop himself from correcting her, intuitively realising that he had to let her give full vent to her fears, without redirecting her course. This is perhaps a move point in the way in which Freud treated his patient, made clearer by the historical context in which this scene operates. While still seen as berth figures now, physicians were much stronger authority figures then. This combined with the greater imbalance of power between men and women would have meant that the patient would be natura lly hesitant about taking any control over their own treatment. Forrester (1990) sees this as a shift in the pattern of authority between the doctor and the patient that originated in Breuers treatment of Anna O a move from the telling the patient what to do, to listening to what the patient has to say. Forrester (1990) constructs the relationship that Freud began to physical body with Emmy von N. as more of a framework of authority inwardly which the patient was able to express her thoughts and feelings to the doctor and in this sense the doctors job is to help the patient keep up this outpouring of stories. At this stage of the discipline of the therapy, the facilitation of the story-telling is being achieved by hypnosis, although later Freud was to move away from this.How great the shift in the power balance was, it is difficult to tell a this distance, but what is clear from the case report is that Emmy von N.s case provided a much more convoluted series of psychical traumas and symptoms than that presented by Anna O. While Anna Os symptoms seemed to match the traumatic events rather neatly, Emmy von Ns mind was not nearly as well organised. At one point Freud discovers that taking the lift to his office causes his patient a considerable join of stress. To try and examine where this comes from he explores whether she has had any previous traumatic experiences in lifts a logical first step within the theoretical framework. Coincidentally, it appears, the patient mentions that she is very(prenominal) worried about her daughter in relation to elevators. The next logical step then should be that talking about this fear should release the affect and lead to catharsis, but this is not what Freud finds. The next part of the puzzle is revealed when he finds out that she is currently menstruating, then finally the last part falls into place when he finds out that as her daughter has been suffering ovarian problems, she has had to travel in a lift in order to meet with her doctor. After some deliberation Freud realises that there is in fact a false connection between the patients menstruation and the worry at her daughter using a lift. It is this amazement of connections that Freud begins to realise is a form of defensive structure to the traumatic thoughts.Freuds Treatment of HysteriaIn the final part of Studies in Hysteria Freud sets out his theory of hysteria and what he has learnt about its treatment. Not only does this part of the book recap some of the themes already discussed but it also highlights some in store(predicate) direction in which Freuds work would travel. Two key signposts are seen first in his stance on hypnotism, and secondly in his view on what constitutes hysteria. In an attempt to be of benefit to patients with hysteria, who he believed this treatment would help, he tried to treat as many as possible. The problem for him was how to tell the difference between a patient with hysteria and one without. Freud chos e an interesting solution to what might have been a protracted problem of diagnosis. He simply treated patients who seemed to have hysteria and let the results of that treatment speak for themselves. What this immediately did was to widen out the object of his enquiry to neuroses in general. Picking up on the lightly touched theme of sexual transference between Breuer and Anna O mentioned earlier, Freud made his feelings about the roots of neurotic problems quite clear, and in the process set the agenda for psychoanalysis for the next century or more. He believed that one of the primal factors in neuroses lay in sexual matters. In particular Freud came to acknowledge that peoples neuroses rarely came in a pure form, as the early and almost impossibly neat case of Anna O had signposted, and that in fact people were more of a mixed bag. Looking back through the cases reported in Studies on Hysteria Freud explains that he came to see a sexual undercurrent in his notes that had not been at the forefront of his mind when he had treated the patients. Especially in the case of Anna O as already noted Freud felt Breuer had missed a trick.What these ideas seem to be adding up to is almost a rejection of hysteria, if not as a separate diagnosis, certainly as a category of disease practically amenable to treatment. Freud, however, is defensive about rejecting the idea of hysteria as a separate diagnosis, despite the fact that that is the direction in which his thoughts are heading. At this stage he believes it can be treated as a separate part of a patients range of symptoms and the effect of this treatment will be governed by its relative importance overall. Those patients, like Anna O, who have relatively pure cases of hysteria will respond well to the cathartic treatment, while those diluted cases will not.The second key signpost for the future of psychoanalysis was Freuds use of hypnosis. What he found was that many of the patients he saw were simply not hypnotisab le Freud claims unwillingness on their part but other writers are of the opinion that he was simply not that good at it (Forrester, 1990). This was a problem for Freud because Breuers formulation of the treatment for hysteria required that events were recollected that were not normally useable to a person. Hypnosis had originally proved a good method and indeed in Anna Os case the only method for gaining access to these past events. In response, Freud now turned away from hypnosis to develop his own proficiencys for eliciting the patients traumatic events. These were quite simple he insisted that the patient remember what the traumatic event was, and if they still could not, he would ask the patient to lie down and close their eyes nowadays one of the archetypal images of patient and analyst. Freud saw the patients reluctance of his patients to report their traumatic events as a one of the biggest hurdles in his coalescing form of therapy. He came up with the idea that there was some psychical force within the patient that stopped the memories from being retrieved. From the patients he had treated, he had found that the memories that were being held back were often of an embarrassing or shameful nature. If was for this reason that the patient was activating psychical defence mechanisms. At this stage he hoped to be able to show in the future that it was this defence or repulsion of the traumatic event to the depths of the memory that was causation so much psychical pain to the patient.Overcoming this psychical force, Freud found, was not as simple as insisting, and he developed some further techniques. Patients would easily plod off their point or simply dry up and it needed more powerful persuasion to return them to the traumatic event. One particular technique he found extremely useful and would almost invariably use it when treating patients. This involved placing his hand on the patients head and instructing them that when they feel the pressure they will also see an image of their traumatic event. Having assured the patient that whatever they see, they should not worry that this image is inappropriate or too shameful to discuss, then they are asked to attempt a description of the image. Freud believed that this system worked by distracting the patient, in a similar way as hypnosis, from their conscious searching for the psychical trauma and allowed their mind to float free.Even using the new technique of applying pressure, it did not provide direct access to the psychical trauma. What Freud found was that it tended to signal a jumping off point or a way-station, somewhere on the way to or from the trauma. Sometimes the image produced would provide a new starting point from which the patient could work, sometimes it fitted into the flow of the subject of discussion. Occasionally the new image would bring a long-forgotten idea to the patients mind which would surprise them and initially seem to be unrelated, but later turn out t o have a connection. Freud was so pleased with his new pressure technique that, in complex cases, he would often use it continuously on the patient. This procedure would bring to light memories that had been hitherto completely forgotten, as well as new connections between these memories and even, sometimes, thoughts that the patient doesnt even believe to be their own.Freud is careful to point out that although his pressure technique was useful, there were a number of very strong forms of defence that stopped him gaining easy access to the patients psychical trauma. He often found that in the first instance, applying pressure by his hand to the patient would not work, but when he insisted to the patient that it would work the next time, it often would. Still, the patient would sometimes immediately reinterpret or, indeed, begin to edit what was seen, thus making the reporting much less useful. Freud makes it clear that sometimes the most useful observations or memories of the pati ent are those that they consider to be of least use or relevance. Also, the memories will tend to emerge in a haphazard fashion, only later, and with the skill of the analyst, being fitted together into a coherent picture. Freud refers to this as a kind of censoring of the traumatic events, as though it can only be glimpsed in a mirror or partially occluded around a corner. Slowly but sure the analyst begins to build up a picture with the accretion of material. There is nothing, Freud believed that is not relevant every piece of information is a link in the chain, another discriminative stimulus to the event that has traumatised the psyche.Another major component of psychoanalysis makes its first appearance in the Studies on Hysteria. Freud describes a final defence or block against the work of treating hysteria in the very relationship between the patient and doctor. Indeed, Freud sees this defence is sure to arise, and perhaps the most difficult defence of all to overcome. The f irst of the cardinal circumstances in which it may arise is a simple, probably small, breakdown in the relationship between the physician and patient. It might be that the patient is incertain about the physicians techniques or alternatively has felt slighted in the treatment in some way. This can be rectified with a sensitive discussion. The second of the common chord circumstances occurs when the patient becomes fearful that they will lose their independence because of a reliance on their treating physician. As almost all of Freuds patients who had hysteria were women, this could be conceived as a sexual reliance. The third circumstance is where the patient begins to take the problem that they are trying to resolve and transfer it onto the physician, thereby seeing their problem there instead of where it really exists. Freud provides the straightforward example of the sexual transference of a female patient of his who suddenly developed the vision of kissing him. He reports tha t the patient could not be analysed any further until this block had been addressed. The mechanism by which this transference happens, he posits, is that the patient creates a false connection between the fatality which is the basis for their treatment and the therapist, rather than its original recipient. In treating these defences Freud makes it clear that the main aim should be to make the patient aware that this problem exists, and then once they are aware of it, the problem is largely dealt with. The challenge, then, is getting the patient to admit to these potentially embarrassing feelings.The Aetiology of HysteriaThe development of Freuds theory of the etiology of hysteria provides one of the most insightful, and sometimes controversial, areas of his work. The formation of the theory, like the work on its treatment, provided another important testing ground for some of the basic elements of what would later become psychoanalysis.Previous authors, including Breuer in the join t work with Freud in Studies on Hysteria, gave great weight to the heredity factors in the causes of hysteria. Freud meanwhile acknowledged these ideas, but in genetic endowment and the Aetiology of the Neuroses (Freud, 1896b) set out the three factors he believed were important and began to formulate a new theory. The causes of hysteria could be broken down into (1) Preconditions this would include ancestral factors, (2) concurrent causes which are generalised causes and (3) specific causes, these being specific to the hysteria itself. It is in these specific causes he believed he had found an important contribution to aetiology of the condition.One of the common factors of the patients Freud was seeing, and the one he was coming to see as defining, was in their sexual problems. He reports that while many suffered from a range of antithetic symptoms such as constipation, dyspepsia and fatigue, almost all of them had some kind of sexual problems. These ranged from the inabilit y to achieve orgasm to a more general inability to have a satisfying sexually relationship. Freud saw this as a very significant problem as he maintains that the nervous systems needs to be regularly purged of sexual tension. This pattern across his patients, and the development of his theory of traumatic psychical events, led him to wonder what past events could have caused the sexual dysfunction the patients with hysteria were manifesting. Radically, and expecting no small amount of opposition to the idea, Freud advanced the theory that these neuroses were caused by sexual abuse before the age of sexual maturity. Of the thirteen cases that Freud had treated at the time of the paper, all of them had been subject to sexual abuse at an early age. However, Freud does make it clear that the information about their sexual lives is not obtained without some considerable pressure, and it only emerges in a fragmentary way that has later to be pieced together by the therapist. At this early stage of the theory, Freud believed that the sexual abuse left field a psychical trace and formed the traumatic experience which was locked away in the depths of the mind.These ideas were much further developed and expanded on in yet remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence (Freud, 1896a). Earlier Freud had grouped together hysteria with hallucinatory states and obsessions (Freud, 1894) and had begun to formulate the idea that all of these conditions had a common aetiology. In particular, Freud felt these were all part of an area where the ideas of psychological defences and psychological repression were important. Freud had found that patients he had seen had suffered sexual abuse sometimes as early as two years old and up to the age of ten, which he drew as an artificial cut-off point. What other theorists saw as a heredity, Freud saw as the confluence of factors for example if a boy had been sexually abused when he was five then it was likely that his brother would have been abused by the same person. Rather than seeing heredity as a separate factor in hysteria, he saw the sexual abuse as a replacement for heredity, sometimes exclusively, as the root cause in itself. The theory shows an interesting divergence in the analysis of obsessional neuroses. Here, Freud believed that the obsessional neuroses were caused by a sexual activity in puerility rather than the sexual passivity typical of abuse. These ideas linked in neatly to the greater preponderance of obsessional neuroses in males. A logical division is and then made with the females, the apparently more passive sex suffering from hysteria, while the apparently more active sex suffering from obsessions. In searching for the aetiology of these two conditions, it is here that Freud prefigures his future thinking on stages of sexual development by introducing the idea that the development of neuroses and/or hysteria is/are dependent on when the sexual abuse occurs in the developmental stages of the chi ld, with sexual maturation providing the cut-off point.In The Aetiology of Hysteria Freud again makes clear his divergence from his mentor, Charcot, in claiming that heredity is not the most important factor in the aetiology of hysteria (Freud 1896c). Freud (1896c) travels back through the life-histories of the patients he has treated looking for the original source of the psychical trauma, discounting all sexual experiences at puberty and later. It is only in pre-pubescent children, when the potential for harm is at its greatest that there lies a sufficient cause. Freuds theory revolves around the idea that at a

Aeschylus :: essays research papers

Aeschylus was born in Eleusis, a classical town near Athens, in 525 B.C. He was thefirst of the great Greek tragedians, preceding both Sophocles and Euripides, and is of disco biscuitcredited with inventing tragic drama. Prior to Aeschylus, plays were primitive, consistingof a single actor and a chorus offering commentary. In his works, he added a "secondactor" (often more than one) thus creating endless new dramatic possibilities. He liveduntil 456 B.C., fighting in the wars against Persia, and attaining great acclaim in the worldof the Athenian theater.Aeschylus wrote nearly ninety plays however, totally seven have survived to themodern era, including such famous works as Prometheus Bound and The Seven AgainstThebes. Agamemnon is the first of a trilogy, called the Oresteia, which continues with TheLibation-Bearers and concludes with The Eumenides. The trilogy--the only such work tosurvive from Ancient Greece--is considered by many critics to be the greatest Atheniantrage dy ever written, both for the power of its poetry and the energy of its characters.Agamemnon depicts the assassination of the title character by his wife,Clytemnestra, and her lover The Libation-Bearers continues the story with the return ofAgamemnons son, Orestes, who kills his mother and avenges his father. Orestes ispursued by the Furies in punishment for his matricide, and finally finds refuge in Athens,where the god Athena relieves him of his persecution.The events of Agamemnon take place against a backdrop that would have beenfamiliar to an Athenian audience. Agamemnon is returning from his victory at Troy, which Palmieri 2has been besieged for ten years by Greek armies attempting to recover Helen,Agamemnons brothers wife, stolen treacherously by the Trojan Prince, Paris. (The eventsof the Trojan War are recounted in Homers Iliad.) The plays tragic events occur as aresult of the crimes committed by Agamemnons family. His father, Atreus, murdered andcooked the children of his own brother, Thyestes, and served them to him Clytemnestraslover, Aegisthus (Thyestess only surviving son), seeks revenge for that crime. Meanwhile,Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia to gain a favorable wind to Troy, andClytemnestra murders him to avenge her death. Tragedies were Athenian, reflecting the discernment and intellectual climate of mid fifthcentury Athens. The weight of history and heritage becomes a major theme of the play,and indeed of the entire trilogy, for the family it depicts cannot escape the doomed cycle ofbloodshed from its past.Aeschylus wrote this victory-winning trilogy in Athens, 458 B.C. His participationin a loosely organized political group is thought to have influenced his

How Did The Environment Affect The Native American Indians With Particular Reference To The Woodlan :: American America History

How Did The Environment Affect The Native American Indians With Particular Reference To The Wood refine Indians? The environment hugely alter the Native American Indians in umteen different ways. This is because of the way in which the Indians used the environment and the surrounding land. The Indians were very close to nature, and so that meant that any changes in nature would be changes in the Indians. LandThe Indians thought of land very differently to the albumin man. The land was sacred, there was no ownership, and it was created by the great spirit. They could not sell their land to others, whereas the white people could fence off the land which belonged to them, and sell it freely to whoever they wanted. The Europeans didnt think that the Indians were using the land properly, so in their eyes, they were doing a good favour to the earth. To the Indians, the land was more valuable than the money that the white man had brought with him, even though it didnt belong to them. Ind ians lived all over America, in many different environments including the flatlands, the forests, the mountains, the deserts, the prairies, on the coast, and even in the arctic. All these Environments affected the different Indians in different ways, so that different Indians evolved over time. godlinessReligion was a very big diverge in many Indians life. Almost every straggle of Indian life is related to religion, the land is sacred, and religion plays a part in what can be done with it, the first Indians had many different religions, and they continued to have religion for the whole of their lives. Dress was affected, many Indians wore special clothes and jewellery of religious importance. Religion often changed family life, the children respected their elders, especially their grandparents, and the Indians believed in divorce and marriage. Education was religious, the boys were taught to hunt, and the girls to treat leather and prepare food. The Indians believed all life to b e sacred, but it could be hunted, as long as it was treated with respect, so this affected the way they hunted, and what food they had. ShelterThe environment also affected the Indians provide in many ways. Depending on where they lived, the Indian tribes had different ways of protecting themselves from the elements using the available resources, and different designs for the general climate. For example, the Indians living in the mountainous and semi-desert areas of the mho west lived in cleverness twig shacks and log huts, whereas the Inuits of the sub arctic north America built igloos, and the woodland Indians lived in bark covered houses.How Did The Environment Affect The Native American Indians With Particular Reference To The Woodlan American America HistoryHow Did The Environment Affect The Native American Indians With Particular Reference To The Woodland Indians? The environment hugely affected the Native American Indians in many different ways. This is because of the way in which the Indians used the environment and the surrounding land. The Indians were very close to nature, and so that meant that any changes in nature would be changes in the Indians. LandThe Indians thought of land very differently to the white man. The land was sacred, there was no ownership, and it was created by the great spirit. They could not sell their land to others, whereas the white people could fence off the land which belonged to them, and sell it freely to whoever they wanted. The Europeans didnt think that the Indians were using the land properly, so in their eyes, they were doing a good favour to the earth. To the Indians, the land was more valuable than the money that the white man had brought with him, even though it didnt belong to them. Indians lived all over America, in many different environments including the flatlands, the forests, the mountains, the deserts, the prairies, on the coast, and even in the arctic. All these Environments affected the different Indians in different ways, so that different Indians evolved over time. ReligionReligion was a very big part in many Indians life. Almost every part of Indian life is related to religion, the land is sacred, and religion plays a part in what can be done with it, the first Indians had many different religions, and they continued to have religion for the whole of their lives. Dress was affected, many Indians wore special clothes and jewellery of religious importance. Religion often changed family life, the children respected their elders, especially their grandparents, and the Indians believed in divorce and marriage. Education was religious, the boys were taught to hunt, and the girls to treat leather and prepare food. The Indians believed all life to be sacred, but it could be hunted, as long as it was treated with respect, so this affected the way they hunted, and what food they had. ShelterThe environment also affected the Indians shelter in many ways. Depending on where they liv ed, the Indian tribes had different ways of protecting themselves from the elements using the available resources, and different designs for the general climate. For example, the Indians living in the mountainous and semi-desert areas of the south west lived in light twig shacks and log huts, whereas the Inuits of the sub arctic north America built igloos, and the woodland Indians lived in bark covered houses.